History of Astrology
The history of celestial observation is probably as old as the history of humanity itself. The initial impulse was probably more practical - as opposed to modern times when many people - including rational scientists - admit to having feelings of awe when observing the heavens. Sun and Moon, fixed stars and planets were all important points of orientation that fulfilled the basic human need of finding a place in the universe and become reconciled with cosmic forces. However, celestial observation does not necessarily equate with astrology.
Astrological thinking can be traced back at least 2500 years BCE to the Sumerians and Babylonians in Mesopotamia. The evidence of early celestial observation in Europe from the time such as Stonehenge suggests a preoccupation with the solar principle.
Apparently one of the first things that humans recognised was the existence of certain cycles that could be calculated in advance. The oldest known surviving ephemeris dates from the year 1970 BCE. It didn't take long before certain phases within cycles became linked to positive or negative expectations. This marked the beginning of prediction. In addition, the observers payed attention to striking celestial events such as eclipses, but also to less conspicuous phenomena such as lunar coronas or the colours of the planets. These observations were used to make predictions concerning the fate of the state.
In the advanced civilisations in Egypt (Egyptian Astrology) and China (Chinese Astrology) the observations were complemented by ideas concerning the quality of time which led to considerable advances in prediction. Nevertheless, there are considerable differences between these systems and Western astrology which developed between the seventh and fourteenth centuries. The astronomical discoveries made in Mesopotamia were joined by the mathematical discoveries in Ancient Greece to form a synthesis. Although the Babylonians knew certain constellations, it was the Greeks who first developed the complete zodiac. They also discovered the precession and developed a spherical model of the cosmos which was important for developing the astrological house systems together with the theory of the four elements.
These ideas formed the basis for the kind of astrology that has remained largely unchanged up until the present time. The main elements were a twelvefold division of the zodiac, the beginnings of a house system with the Ascendant, seven classical planets which were named after gods of the Greek Olympus (later translated into their Roman counterparts), and the astrological aspects. The oldest known horoscope interpretation dates from 410 BCE.
The leading astronomers were also astrologers. The ideas of Hipparchus (around 190-125 BCE) and Ptolemy (around 100-160 CE) continued to influence astrological thought for many centuries. Ptolemy's book "Tetrabiblos" remained the standard astrological work up until the Middle Ages.
In the Roman Empire astrology no longer remained the reserve of select groups of priests and members of the ruling class. It expanded and individual astrology was developed for well-off citizens. However, this process also led to a certain amount of trivialisation. The deep wisdom of cosmic relations continued to blossom in esoteric circles, and these were absorbed from conquered peoples such as the Mithras Cult in Persia or the Isis Cult of Egypt. Astrological influence waned considerably with the rise of Christianity and apart from a few exceptions astrology was rejected by the majority of theologians (see Opponents of Astrology).
A considerable amount of ancient astrological knowledge survived largely thanks to the emerging Arabian Empire (Arabian Astrology). In the 9th and 10th centuries astrology was held in high esteem in Baghdad and Cairo which were important centres of learning. The most important works of antiquity were translated and further developed with the help of new mathematical and astronomical discoveries. Astrology continued to flourish within the? Arabic culture up until the 15th century in Spain, but the growing influence of Islam eventually led to its downfall and little has changed up until the present day.
The opposite happened in Europe, where the end of the Middle Ages signalled a an astrological renaissance which had its roots in Spain. For a short period after the Moors were banished from Spain, a tolerant culture developed which led to numerous advances in knowledge. Toledo in Spain and Chartres in France became the new centres of astrological learning.
The spirit of change was conducive to great development in astrological thought. The Gregorian calendar reform, the invention of printing techniques, mechanical clocks, [[Kepler, Johannes|Johannes Kepler's]] discovery of planetary laws and improved mathematical techniques for calculating the system of astrological houses created a new astrological framework. This was the last time that astrologers and astronomers worked in tandem. Tycho Brahe and Kepler did not only achieve great breakthroughs in astronomical observation and the systematic development of scientific laws, but were also both practitioners of astrology.
The new insights into the structure of the cosmos (Heliocentric Model, Copernican Revolution) did not lead to astrology's foundations being called into question; on the contrary, other branches of science made explicit reference to them. Paracelsus (1493-1541), the founder of modern medicine, declared: "How can the person who is unacquainted with the heavens claim to be a doctor? A doctor who knows the outer heaven can access the inner and give form to the patient's firmament (On Medicine)." Numerous heads of state and even religious leaders such as Pope Paul III had court astrologers.
The golden age of astrology lasted until the Baroque period of the 17th century. This was followed by a decline which had several causes. The scientific advances of the time caused many of its supporters to believe that they could describe the cosmos in purely physical terms. This brand of positivism didn't leave any room for astrology. The Christian religion also became increasingly intolerant of astrology. The reformer Martin Luther (1483-1546) rejected astrology early on in his career; the Jesuits, who became the most influential order within the catholic church after the counter-reformation, also rejected astrology. The Enlightenment of the 18th century speeded up the process which saw astrology driven out of the universities and general public discourse. The discovery of the planet Uranus in 1781 beyond the seven known [Classical Planets:classical planets] seemed to deal the finishing blow to astrology's reputation. In Germany, for example, astrology's academic era ended in 1817: It was the year in which Professor Julius Wilhelm Andreas Pfaff held his last astrological lecture at the university of Erlangen.
But astrology was not finished. At the end of the 19th century it experienced a new revival which has continued to the present day. The reasons for this are varied. External developments such as the introduction of time zones in 1884 made astrological calculation easier. Astrologers were open to new scientific discoveries and managed to integrate many of these new ideas into astrology. This was not only the case with the newly discovered planets, but also psychology which led to a fertile exchange of ideas. Some proponents of such as C.G. Jung found astrology to be a source of new impulses. At the same time astrologers like Dane Rudhyar and Thomas Ring used the insights of depth psychology to make a thorough revision of astrology.
In the second half of the 20th century, science was increasingly confronted with its own limits. Its groundbreaking discoveries brought up new questions leading to some scientists around the turn of the century to claim that it was not possible to categorically discount the idea of a cosmic plan behind the observable universe. However, large reservations remain regarding astrology's validity.
Current astrological thought combines the various elements that have influenced its historical development: Investigation and interpretation are carried out on a serious level which is complemented by an active exchange of ideas with other disciplines (Science and Astrology). However, many of the more trivial elements of astrology still survive, and the majority of scientists continue to vociferously oppose astrology (Opponents of Astrology).
